Key points at a glance
- Choose the graphic’s purpose.
- Name interval type and sample.
- Do not read overlap as a universal test.
Separate spread from estimate uncertainty
Standard deviation describes spread among observations; standard error and confidence intervals concern an estimate’s uncertainty. Identical-looking bars can therefore mean different things. Decide what readers need and label the bars explicitly.
Write an informative caption
Example: “Points show group means; bars show 95% confidence intervals; n = 24 and 27 independent participants.” This says more than “mean ± error”. With small samples, consider showing individual values or a suitable distribution plot too.
Avoid an automatic significance rule
Whether bars overlap does not universally determine the p-value for a difference. Meaning depends on interval type, data dependence and model. If a test addresses the question, report its estimated contrast and uncertainty separately.
Check print legibility
Use readable labels and line weights; keep groups distinguishable without colour. Inspect the exported PDF at actual page size. Decorative shading should not obscure values or intervals.
Final submission context
Formal details can feel like a separate writing task, but they matter just as much for a printed submission. Anything missing, misplaced or inconsistently formatted in the document will also appear in the bound copy.
Use this guide together with your cover page, table of contents, page numbers, source notes and appendices. Prepare the final PDF for printing and binding only after the complete file has been checked.
Practical check before PDF export
- Do headings, chapter structure and page numbers match?
- Are sources, figures and tables included completely?
- Are required elements such as declarations, appendices or the cover page included where required?
- Did you open and check the final PDF after exporting it?
Checklist
- Interval type selected.
- n and unit supplied.
- Individual values considered.
- PDF checked at print size.
Common mistakes
- Confusing SD, SE and CI.
- Leaving bars unlabelled.
- Treating overlap as a universal test rule.
Prepare the finished thesis for submission
Once the content and university requirements are checked, review your PDF and the available printing and binding options.
Review printing optionsRelated content
Explore related guidance on thesis structure, sources, formatting and final submission.
Frequently asked questions
Should I use SD or CI?
SD describes observed spread; CI conveys estimate uncertainty. Choose by purpose.
Does overlap mean non-significance?
Not universally. Use the appropriate contrast analysis.
Should n appear in the chart?
It helps interpretation and should be in caption or accompanying text.